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Logic 101: A Quick Guide

This text dives deep into the world of logic, covering definitions, core concepts like تصور (conception) and تصديق (assent), types of knowledge, and different types of arguments. It also touches on the important classifications of universals (كلي) and particulars (جزئي), and different kinds of definitions.

You'll walk away with:

• A solid understanding of the fundamental building blocks of logic and how they relate to reasoning.
• The ability to distinguish between different types of knowledge and arguments.
• The skills to identify potential flaws and errors in thinking.

Core Content:

Here's a breakdown of the main ideas, so you can grasp the knowledge without diving through raw text:

1. Defining Logic:

• Definition: Logic is the science exploring conceptual and judgmental information, related to leading to unknown knowledge. Its role is a legal tool that protects the mind from mistakes in thinking.
• Subject: Conceptual and judgmental information, regarding leading to unknown knowledge, or judgmental unknown.
• Function:
  • Establish general laws for the thinking process.
  • Identify errors in thinking, their types, and causes.
  • Describe paths leading to correct knowledge.

2. Types of Knowledge: التصور (Conception) and التصديق (Assent):

• تصور (Conception): Understanding the meaning of a single concept (without judgment).
• تصديق (Assent): Recognizing the occurrence of a relationship (positive or negative). Like understanding the occurrence of standing in "Zaid is standing".
• Important Note: Every assent involves a conception, but not every conception leads to assent.

3. Types of التصور (Conception) and التصديق (Assent):

• Necessary (بديهي): Doesn't rely on thought or reflection.
• Acquired (كسبي): Requires thought and reflection.
• Four Divisions:
  1. Necessary Conception: Involves a single item.
  2. Acquired Conception: Involves a compound.
  3. Necessary Assent: Doesn't depend on a prior assent.
  4. Acquired Assent: Depends on a prior assent (its proof).

4. Sources of Certainty (أسباب اليقين or مداركه):

1. Axioms (الأوليات): Immediately accepted by the mind.
2. Sensory Perceptions (المحسوسات): Gained through the five senses.
3. Internal Perceptions (المشاهدات الباطنة): Internal sensations.
4. Empirical Observations (التجريبيات): Repeated experiences.
5. Testimonies (المتواترات): Information from a large group.

5. Universals (الكلي) and Particulars (الجزئي):

• Universal: A concept that can be shared.
• Particular: A concept that cannot be shared.
• Example:
  • "Human" is universal.
  • "Zaid" (a specific person) is particular.

6. Types of Universals (الكلي) Based on Essence:

• Essential (ذاتي): Cannot be conceived without conceiving the essence.
  • Genus (الجنس): Like "animal".
  • Species (النوع): Like "human".
  • Differentia (الفصل): Distinguished part of the essence.
• Accidental (عرضي): Outside the essence.
  • General Accident: Like "walking."
  • Specific Accident: Like "laughing."

7. Four Relations Between Universals (النسب الأربع):

1. Total Exclusion (التباين الكلي): No overlap. Like "human" and "horse."
2. Equality (التساوي): Complete overlap. Like "human" and "rational being."
3. Absolute Inclusion (العموم، والخصوص المطلق): One includes the other. Like "animal" and "human" (all humans are animals, but not all animals are humans).
4. Partial Inclusion (العموم، والخصوص الوجهي): Partial overlap. Like "black" and "stone."

8. The Five Predicables (الكليات الخمس):

1. Genus (الجنس): Applicable to many differing in essence.
2. Species (النوع): Applicable to many agreeing in essence.
3. Differentia (الفصل): Distinguishes an essence from others.
4. Property (الخاصة): Applies only to one essence.
5. Accident (العرض العام): Outside the essence, applicable to other things.

9. Definition (التعريف):

• Definition: Total attributes that make up the concept of "thing", which distinguishes it from other things.

• Types of Definition:

  • Real Definition (الحد): Defines something by its essential characteristics (genus and differentia). Two kinds:

    • Complete Definition (الحد التام): States all essential characteristics.
    • Incomplete Definition (الحد الناقص): Doesn't use both the nearest genus and differentia.

  • Nominal Definition (الرسم): Defines something by its external/accidental characteristics. Two kinds:

    • Complete Nominal Definition (الرسم التام): Formed from the nearest genus and special characteristic.
    • Incomplete Nominal Definition (الرسم الناقص): Formed from special characteristic alone, or distant genus and special characteristic.

• Conditions for a Good Definition:

  • Equal in scope to what is being defined.
  • Clearer than what is being defined.
  • Positive (when possible).

10. Propositions (القضايا):

• Definition: A statement that can be either true or false.
• Types of Propositions:
  • Categorical Propositions (القضايا الحملية): Affirm or deny something of something else.
    • Subject: The first Part.
    • Predicate: The second Part.
  • Conditional Propositions (القضايا الشرطية): State a relationship of dependence.
    • Antecedent: The first Part.
    • Consequent: The second Part.

11. Types of Categorical Propositions (القضايا الحملية):

1. Singular Proposition (القضية الشخصية): Subject is a specific individual.
2. Universal Proposition (القضية الكلية): Subject is universal.
3. Particular Proposition (القضية الجزئية): Subject is particular.
4. Indefinite Proposition (القضية المهملة): Lacks a quantifier (like "all" or "some").

12. Propositional Quantifiers (سور القضية):

• Indicates the quantity of individuals covered by the proposition.
• Examples:
  • "All" (for universal affirmative).
  • "No" (for universal negative).
  • "Some" (for particular affirmative).
  • "Not all" (for particular negative).

Q&A

Q: What's the difference between

تصور (conception)

and

تصديق (assent)

?

A:

تصور (conception)

is simply understanding a concept.

تصديق (assent)

goes a step further; it's recognizing the truth (or falsehood) of a statement or relationship.

Q: What's the point of classifying universals and particulars?

A: It helps us understand the scope of our knowledge and how we can make valid statements about things.

Q: Why are there so many types of definitions?

A: Because different situations require different levels of precision. A "real definition" aims for the essence of something, while a "nominal definition" is more about describing it in a practical way.

Q: What's the big deal about making sure definitions are clear?

A: If your definitions are vague or confusing, your reasoning will be based on shaky ground. Clear definitions are essential for clear thinking!